Frankfurt School refers to a group of philosophers who were together at the Frankfurt Institute for Social Research during the 1920s and 30s. Prominent members of the school were Horkheimer, Adorno, Pollock, Eric Fromm, Neumann and Herbert Marcuse. All of them, one way or the other, contributed to the Marxist theory. Of course, there were differences among them on many issues, but there is some common streak which emerges from their writings. Their view also came to be called Critical Theory. They were all critical of all forms of domination and exploitation in society. They were also critical of they Stalinist variety of socialism. They argued that Marxism was not a closed system. They are more concerned with cultural and ideological issues than with political economy which is the core of orthodox Marxism.
Opposition to all Forms of Domination
At the very outset, you must understand the context in which they wrote and the issues which bothered them. They wrote in a period which was marked by the rise of Nazism (in Germany) and Fascism (in Italy). Moreover, the rise of Stalinism in the Soviet Union with its totalitarian thrust was a cause of serious concern for them. They were also aware of the failure of communist movements in western Europe. They were critical of all ideologies because ideologies do not offer a true account of reality. They were particularly critical of those ideologies which attempt to conceal arid legitimize systems of exploitation and domination. Through critical analysis of such ideologies, they wanted to trace the hidden roots of domination in them. By doing so, they tried to create true consciousness among the masses and prepare them for revolutionary action. Thus, their goal like Marx is revolutionary transformation of society, but in a different way.
They were critical of cultural and social philosophies and practices which aim at offering a false escape from monotonous every day life under capitalism, or which advocates the idea that inequalities are not man-made, but natural or have come from God.
Critique of Orthodox Marxism
The Frankfurt School tried to offer a critique of some of the notions of orthodox Marxism which had acquired repressive and authoritarian intent in the Soviet Union. Some of them even went to the extent of saying that Marxism is not adequate to explain trends like bureaucratization. Like Lukacs and Gramsci, they also questioned the Marxian doctrine of historical materialism which tries to explain all stages in historical developments in economic terms. They argued that it underplays the role of human subjectivity. In fact, they tried to show that this 'determinist' thrust (economic base determining everything) was the result of Marx's acceptance ofpositivist methodology of natural sciences. Moreover, the contradiction between forces and relations ofproduction may not have similar results in all societies. It will depend on how people view these contradictions and how they try to resolve them. History is made by the situated conduct of partially knowing subjects. Therefore, for understanding any historical situation, it is essential to comprehend the interplay between socio-economic structure and social practices.
In Search of Emancipation
The central concern in the writings of the Frankfurt school is domination and authority. They argued that in liberal as well as socialist societies, domination and authority are justified in the name of reason which they call instrumental rationality. In fact, it is the result of the application of the positivist methods of natural sciences to social sciences. In natural sciences. we study the physical phenomenon with a view to control and regulate it, but in human sciences the object of study of society should not be to control and regulate human beings, but to emancipate them from all sorts of bondages. All socio-cultural practices in western as well as eastern societies are aimed at stablizing the system of domination. In this sense, you can treat the Frankfurt School as the advocate of a counter-culture. They are also critical of authoritarian family structures and the socialization processes in education. They stand for sexual liberation as well. They are critical of the processes by which public opinion is manipulated by political pal-ties and through market research and advertising agencies.
SUMMARY
In the foregoing pages, we have discussed three major streams in Marxism which have been witnessed during the twentieth century; those associated with Lukacs. Gramsci and the Frankfurt School. While they do differ with each other in matters of detail, there are some common elements in all the three of them. For example, they underplay the Marxian doctrine of historical materialism where the economic base determines the super-structure. Instead, they emphasize the role of human consciousness and will (Lukacs) and cultural aspects (Gramsci and Frankfurt School). All the three attempt to explain why bourgeois rule and capitalism have not been overthrown as Marx had predicted. Why is it that despite the existence of a large proletariat class in several societies, revolutionary change has not occurred? In their search for answers to these questions, they found that the mere existence of the proletariat class is not enough for a revolution to occur; this proletariat class must acquire the necessary revolutionary consciousness. They also found that ruling classes are able to maintain their hegemony and domination by various subtle methods like imposing their cultural norms, their beliefs and values on the masses. It is the responsibility of intellectuals to guide the masses in this respect. They also explained how and by what methods the authority structures of domination are legitimized in order to ensure stability of the system.
Post a Comment