SIGNIFICANCE OF WESTERN POLITICAL THOUGHT

WHAT IS POLITICAL THOUGHT

Political thought is the account of the political thoughts of a host of political philosophers from beginning to the end. It is the sum-total of thoughts on matters relating to politics, state and government as expressed through the thinkers. It is historical in nature because it is described as history. It analyses, amines and evaluates issues that have a universal concern and are of perennial interest even though each political theorist responds to a scrupulous political reality. It is written keeping the superior public in mind and is not confined to ivory towers for an intimate link is recognized flanked by the political procedure, institutions, events and actors. Usually political theory flourishes in times of crises which act as incentive though it is not necessary that all crises lead to political theorizing.

Political thought is the account, analysis, expression, and evaluation of the philosophies of the philosophers of a political custom. It is a custom in as distant as it comes to us as a body of thought. It is the sum-total of what stays on, and an accumulation of what is changed and what continues. It is what keeps responding to our circumstances. What becomes out-dated is not the part of the custom.

Political thought attempts to identify values and norms and creates them an inseparable part of a scrupulous political trend. Western political thought, if we wish to identify its magic themes, evolves and revolves approximately values such as liberty and libertarian, democracy and democratic custom, equality and egalitarian. Political thought as it has lived and/or exists in India, for instance, seeks to set up ethical/moral values in politics, spiritualism, cooperative livelihood, and the like.

Political thought is primarily the revise of the state. It studies society insofar as society powers the state as political life and social life, though self-governing is inter-dependent. Likewise, it focuses on economic institutions and procedure insofar it powers the political order and procedure. It also takes into consideration ethical questions for ultimately it is concerned with a presently and good political order.

Distinction flanked by Political Thought, Political Theory, and Political Philosophy

Political thought and political philosophy have been used interchangeably. When we talk of the history of political thought, we refer to the classical custom that began with Plato and ended with Marx though both Germino and MacIntyre consider Hegel's political philosophy as the ending of the classical custom, for, both see Marx as re-interpreting Hegel. The works of the great philosophers depict not only the troubles faced in their respective times, but also reflect their examination, enquiry, and experience. Political philosophy may, therefore, be said lo be the political thought of a scrupulous philosopher of a scrupulous age. But political philosophy is superior to the political thought of a scrupulous philosopher; it is the political thought of an age or of a society. Political thought is also intimately connected with political philosophy. It amplifies and clearly states political thoughts, puts them in a time frame. So, political philosophy does contain political thought even though all political thought is not political philosophy. The variation flanked by political philosophy and philosophy is not in relation to the mood or method but in relation to the subject matter.

Political thought is a historical narrative, descriptive to a big extent. 'Though political thought is historical in its approach, it is also, at the similar time observational, empirical, operational, relative and scientific. Political theory deals with concepts and thoughts of a scrupulous thinker. Its mode of inquiry is relative and explanatory.

Connection flanked by Political Thought and Political Science

Political thought is the assemblage of the philosophies of the numerous political philosophers wherein each political philosopher theorizes on political issues confronting his times. Each political philosopher discusses the political thoughts of his times and the age he lives in. It is in this sense that the assertion is made that each philosopher is the child of his own age. It is through his own circumstances that each philosopher impetus as well as inspiration. He also, in this sense, symbolizes his age. His philosophy/thought responds to the times lie symbolizes. His thought is his views on the numerous political concepts. Political thought becomes political thought through moving through political philosophy.

Political thought is history-oriented. It is the political history of a scrupulous time. It is history vertically, and history horizontally. Plato discussed the concept of justice after having discussed the numerous notions of justice prevailing then: the father son traditional view of justice; the radical view of justice and the two-brother' pragmatic view of justice. As against the historically-horizontal view of justice, political thought discusses the concept of justice vertically when it examines the term 'justice' as it evolves in the writings of the subsequent political philosophers.‘

History is related to political science only casually, and to the extent it helps understand political phenomena. So understood, there is much that separates the two conditions, political science and political thought. History is a feature characteristic of political thought; science, that of political science. The nature of political thought is philosophical while that of political science is empirical. Political thought is a value-laden exercise; political science is value-free. Political thought understands the present through the help of past and thereafter builds future on the present; political science deals mainly with the present, and with the future, only marginally. These distinctions separately there are much that both require from each other.

Political science depends on political thought in more than one method. Political thought spaces data at the disposal of political science for the latter's scrutiny. A political philosopher's philosophy is examined through a political scientist through scientific apparatus. The political thoughts of a political philosopher are examined in a method that he is described as 811 idealists or a scientist. There is a valid point when Plato is said to be the father of political philosophy, and Aristotle, as the father of political science-political idealism owes its inspiration to Plato, political realism, to Aristotle.

Political thinkers do not ignore scientific methodology while putting 'forth their political philosophy. Aristotle is said to have adopted the relative method of analyzing and classifying states of his times-he is said to have read and examined 158 constitutions of his age. Hobbes, and before him, Machiavelli too had followed the scientific method in expressing their thoughts, if science means a revise derived from rigorous readings, experimentation, observations, leading to testable and consistory conclusions. Marx, to take another instance, is said to have given a scientific theory of socialism, though, though all of them had reached sure finality in political theorizing the subsequent growths negated much of this claim. As such political theory is always a mixture of information and value incorporating the subjective thoughts of the thinkers and the prevailing climate of his age.

WESTERN POLITICAL THOUGHT : NATURE AND CONTENT

It is impossible to imagine political thought of the West for that matter, of any society without history, Political thought is related to politics, but it is history that gives political thought its extremely foundation. We do not mean to say that political thought can be studied without politics, but we certainly want to insist that we cannot revise political thought without history, Understanding political thought in the historical context is, in information, understanding political thought in the real sense.' A political philosopher's political philosophy emerges in the age of philosopher breaths. In information, his political philosophy is an answer to the times the philosopher lives in. His philosophy cannot be separated from history of his times. No political thinker builds up his political philosophy without taking an explanation of the age or his times. To put the point in another sense, it may be said that a political philosopher is understood only in his milieu. Plato, though an idealist, could hardly be separated from his soil his classification of states depicted the classification as it prevailed then; his theory of education was drawn heavily from what lived in Athens and Sparta then. Machiavelli's whole methodology depicted his debt to history. Karl Marx went all the method to advocate the materialistic interpretation of history. The objective circumstances of history always give the foundations on which the political philosophers have built their philosophy.

Furthermore, we can understand the political philosophy of a political thinker only in the historical context. Separate a political philosopher from his times; one will always discover a Popper condemning Plato as an enemy of open society. A contextual revise is always a safer method of understanding a text. A text without a context is a structure without a base. Machiavelli is better understood in the context of renaissance. Hobbes and Locke, with their views as separately as the north-south poles, can be better studied in the background of the English civil war. Marx call is understood in the light of the rising capitalism of the European/ Western society.

It has grown and is rising, and in information, will always stay rising. It has grown in a typical method; each subsequent philosopher condemns or criticizes the philosophy or political thoughts of an earlier philosopher, and in the procedure builds his own philosophy. Aristotle did so with Plato; Locke did so with Filmer; Bentham, with Blackstone; John Stuart Mill, with Bentham; Marx did so with Hegel, Adam Smith, Proudhon. So western political thought has grown; it proceeds on polemics, it changes, but it continues. It is continuing since the days of Plato and Aristotle. No wonder if then it is said that all philosophy is a footnote to Plato. Plato and Aristotle jointly gave the base on which stands the whole fabric of western political thought; for political idealism and political realism are the two pillars of the western political philosophy from where rise numerous other related shades. It is not easy to identify what the western political thought contains. The effort, indeed, would be arbitrary. Though, major contents of the western political thought can, for the sake of creation a point, be stated, to be:

• Political institutions and procedures;

• Political idealism and realism.

Western Political Thought, Political Institutions, and Political Procedures

Western political thought deals, mainly, with political institutions and procedures relating to them. If political theory deals with what is related to or is relevant to politics, political thought, coming as it is, from the writings of a host of political philosophers deals with political power, i.e., wherein it is vested and how it is exercised, and for what objects does it exist. The political thinkers from the earlier days to the present times have dealt with such questions relating to politics: Plato was more interested in the state as it ought to be than Aristotle who devoted all his power on the best practicable state. The ancient Roman theorists talked in relation to the nature and role of law in administration. With the medieval Church theorists, political power was made to work under the divine law, the divine law under the natural law, the natural law under the eternal law. The early contemporary political theorists were concerned with the supreme power. The contractualists were eager to answer questions as to how the state came into subsistence and as to why people obey laws. While political philosophy deals with institutions as they were, as they are, and as they require/ ought to be, Marx saw them in materialist conditions. Sabine puts the point crossways when lie says,

"A significant function of political thought is not only to illustrate what a political practice is but also to illustrate what it means. In showing what a practice means, or what it ought to mean, political theory can alter what it is."

Political philosophers have sought to understand the political institutions of their times, have given them the meanings and, in doing so; have suggested methods of altering them. Therefore, we may say that political thought deals with institutions. Further more, and it is significant as well, subsequent philosophers have after having suggested the changes in the institutions, maintained stability, the political philosopher, to use Sabine's languages, is a 'connector', a 'realtor' who weaves the political fabric.

Western political thought is equally dominated, since the beginning, with an interest in the political procedures as to how and why political power is applied. Indeed, political thought deals with political institutions, but it is also related to the working of political institution. 'The political philosophers were and are, primarily concerned not with what a state is or what it does, but also with how a state once entrusted with power, creates use of it. In other languages, political thought has been, beside with the revise of political institutions, dominated with, if we want to provide it a word, the rule of law, i.e., the procedure as to how the political power is put to use.

The rule of law means that there has to be the law that rules the people, and not the man that rules. It is a negation of the coercive, arbitrary, and totalitarian rule. It is a justification of power and its use. The rule of law, as a concept, has sure characteristics of its own: the law is to be applied impersonally; it cannot be used as a means for attaining individuals ends; it necessity be applied indiscriminately, though it is an act of scrupulous circumstances, has to be self-governing from the particularities, it forbids people to use coercive power in excess of others; it has to respond to the common norms of society and equilibrium; it has to be in consonance to 'cause'. Plato's ideal republic was a construction of cause and one of the major concerns of the Republic was the development of leadership that would not be corrupt and would remain subservient to its rational law. Aristotle preferred the rule of law to the rule of man, howsoever wise these may be. The Romans and the medieval thinkers advocate the efficacy of law: temporal or ecclesiastical. The contractualists did refer to the natural law. The jurists, from Austin to Blackstone, and Coke, never lost sight of the juridical and legal power. The Marxists denounce the State as an instrument of use while the anarchists reject externally imposed power. No contemporary political philosopher, if any, should preach a system without creation rule of law as the base of society.

Western Political Thought, Political Idealism, and Political Realism

The two major streams beside with which the whole western political thought keeps marching on are:

Political idealism or as one may see political philosophy, Political realism, or as one may call it political science.

Plato symbolizes political idealism, and is rightly described as the father of political philosophy; Aristotle symbolizes political realism, and is extremely aptly described the father of political philosophy.

Philosophy and science have dominated the course of the western political thought. For an extensive time in the history of the west, philosophy ruled political thought till in relation to the first half of the 19th Century. It was then that science, owing mainly to the development made in oilier social sciences and the urge to create political phenomena relevant, captured the attention of the political philosophers, especially throughout the early years and the decades of 1950s- 1960s in United States. These debates characterized nothing but the tussle flanked by philosophy and science, flanked by idealism and realism. All these testified nothing but change and stability in the western custom. Berlin, in an article in Gould and Thurstoy, Modern Political Thought, writes, "Neo-Marxism, neo-Thomism, nationalism, historicism, existentialism, anti-essential liberalism and socialism, transposition of doctrines of natural rights and natural law into empirical conditions... indicate not the death of a great custom but, if anything, new and unpredictable growths." All political thought, as it has urbanized or evolved, has tossed flanked by what it ought to be and what is and constantly moves flanked by the two stages.

SIGNIFICANCE OF WESTERN POLITICAL THOUGHT

Western political thought, since its beginning from ancient Greece has dealt with diverse diversities of issues, and each philosopher has handled them from his own angle. Indeed, the political philosophers have, at times, disagreed on the solutions, but what is significant is the stability of the issues which have captured their intentions. The major issues relating to politics have been the concerns of political philosophers. Through attempting to discover solutions to these political issues, the political theorists have given the western political thought not only a direction, but also a unity of thought procedures. The significance of western political thought lies in the effort of the political philosophers to identify political issues, and give solutions, therefore giving political thought a meaning and a vision. Sheldon Wolin puts a point, saying, "The designation of sure behaviors and arrangements as political, the feature method that we think in relation to them, and the concepts we employ to communicate our observations and reactions... none of these are written in the nature of things but are the legacy accruing from the historical action of political philosophers". He states these political' issues: the power dealings flanked by government and subject, the nature of political power, the troubles created through social conflicts, purposes and objectives of political action, and the character and utility of political knowledge.

Feature Characteristics of the Great Works of Western Political Thought

Any writing of a political discourse does not constitute part of the western political thought, but those which do are rightly described as the great works or the classics. It is a classic because it is a "class" through itself, "a work of the first rank and of acknowledged excellence". The classics in political thought contain the works of Plato to that of Marx. The word 'classics' signify 'a conversation of several voices', 'a dialogue' flanked by dissimilar perspectives and interpretations of reality as a work.

The works on political theory are written through political philosophers from time to time, and are related to a scrupulous time, and yet they are timeless. They are timeless because they live in all times and live beyond their own time. They are timeless because they are relevant in all ages-part, present and future. They are timeless because they highlight troubles which are troubles for all times to come: corruption in politics had been a problem in Plato's times, and it is a problem even today. The works are timeless because they deal with issues confronting every age. They are timeless because the themes they touch reflect all times in all circumstances. They are timeless because they live in perpetuity.

The works on political theory are not outstanding because what is expressed therein is original, a 'who said it first' kind. All the conditions such as 'class', 'class thrash about', 'proletariat', 'bourgeois', 'revolution', 'surplus value', which Marx used, Isaiah Berlin says, were not his, i.e., he was not the first person who used them, for they have been used through several scholars earlier. But that was not what goes to the credit of Marx. Marx's contribution lies in giving these conditions new and definite meanings, a new political thought built on them. What is original may be a significant factor, but what is more significant is the understanding of a political situation and giving to the world, a new interpretation. That is where lies the importance of Mam, and, for that matter, of any political philosopher.

The political texts have contributed a great deal to the development of the dedicated language, expressed through languages, symbols, concepts and has become the vocabulary of political, philosophy. The concept of 'common will' used through Rousseau is an instance of such vocabulary. The languages such as 'state of nature', 'civil society' and the like are other examples. These works in politics through numerous philosophers have enriched our literature.

Relevance of Western Political Thought

It is the embodiment of the writings of numerous political philosophers. These writings are works in the field of Political Science which have stood the test of time. They have survived through ages because of their intrinsic worth. They remain motivating and instructive because of their perennial themes, sound comprehension, subtle approach, and profound analysis. They wield great power, and are, basically, suggestive.

The works of political thought are outstanding not because they are universally praised. In information, they are neither praised nor denounced. Plato is rated extremely high through some like Barker, 'wilde, Whiteliead who go to the extent of saying that all subsequent philosophy is a footnote to Plato, while others such as Popper, Crossman and winspear, condemn him as fascist, totalitarian, and enemy of democracy. Machiavelli, to take another instance, has been denounced through Catholic writers such as Butterfield, but has been admired through secular scholars such as Allen, Gramsci, and Wolin. These works on political thought flourish because they are continuously studied, interpreted, and discussed; each subsequent reading provides a new and fresh orientation. They are a great aid to thinking. It is in this sense that they are suggestive. Plato does not impose his 'communistic‖ devices for acceptance, but lie do stimulate our mind and reactivate it to think other possible devices. They are not only suggestive, but are essentially inspirational.

In relation to the importance of the western political thought, Sheldon Wolin writes: "In teaching in relation to the past theories, the theorist is occupied in the task of political unitation, that is of introducing new generations of the students to the complexities of politics and the efforts of the theorist to confront its predicaments, of developing the capability for discriminating judgment, and of cultivating that sense of significance... which is vital to the scientific enquiry but cannot be furnished through scientific methods, and of exploring the methods it1 which new theoretical vistas are opened." Dilthey also says; "In learning classics, we construct our life experience with the aid of experiences of the great thinkers. Communication with their experiences enriches our own experience. After all, did not Karl Marx write: only music can awaken the musical sense in man?"

The great custom of Western political theory from Plato to Hegel deals exhaustively with the major contradictions and dimensions of the political procedure. Their importance is exhibited through the information that though they were primarily concerned with the immediate troubles besetting their modern situation, yet they were able to transcend their localism. In the procedure they were able to give a framework of analysis that would enrich other eras as well through their penetrating insights and thoughtful reflections on perennial troubles of politics, power, power, legitimacy, equity, and order.

'They are masterpieces as they do not belong to any one civilization, culture, or time but cherished through the whole humankind.